The origin of glass dates back to 3000 BC. Credit is given to the Egyptians and the Sumarians of the Indus valley. The oldest form of glass which was created during this era is known as faience. This was an opaque mixture of finely graded sand and metal oxides. After firing it resembled the ceramic glazes as found on contemporary pottery. These ancient alchemists had made a great chemical breakthrough. When silicates, i.e. quartz, flint, or sand, is mixed with potash or natron, and heated in a furnace, the resulting product is glass. The alchemists found that by adding metal oxides to this mixture, a wide range of colored glass could be produced.

One of the tools which were invented for working with fiancé, was a solid metal rod which was coated with a mixture of sand and organic material. By coating or layering the end of the rod with hot glass, a small vessel would take shape. After the glass had been cooled down, the charred organic material was removed from the interior, leaving a hollow core vessel. As time progressed, the glass artisans became more skillful with their craft. New developments in furnace design aided in the manufacture of glassware at a rate unimaginable by the earlier craftsmen.

In Egypt, during the reign of Amenhotep IV (1379 – 1363 BC), cuneiform tablets revealed a formula for glazes as well as a description of the furnaces. The descriptions are as follows: “furnaces for metal”, “furnaces with floor and eyes”, and “furnaces of the arch”. The “furnace with floor and eyes” is a quote describing a glass furnace. Under the floor, in a crucible, the glass was melted and prepared for use. A glass craftsmen would then gather a bit of molten glass onto the end of the metal rod using the “eyes” of the furnace to reheat the vessel as needed. The “arch” of the furnace is a reference to an annealing chamber entrance. By putting the completed vessel into the annealing chamber, the glass was allowed to drop in temperature at a predictable rate. If allowed to cool down to quickly, the glass would break. By the end of the reign of the Egyptian dynasties, vessels, sculptures, and jewelry created by the artisans, revealed a masterful use of techniques for this very diverse medium.

As the glass trade expanded into other parts of the Old World, namely the Near East, the Mediterranean, and Europe, new designs for glass furnaces as well as more refined materials for the furnaces, were being developed. One invention which started a revolution in glass working was the “blowing iron”. This occurred, most likely, in Syria, around the second century BC. The blowing iron was a hollow metal tube, onto which a small bit of glass would be gathered from a crucible within the glass furnace. By blowing into the end of the iron, a small bubble would be formed onto which consecutive gathers of glass could be applied.

This innovation led to the manufacture of a greater variety of glassware items. Stemware, plates, bottles, bowls, and vases were now accessible to the general populace and were becoming more and more commonplace. As the techniques of glass blowing advanced, small sheets of glass were easily produced which could then be sized, cut and glazed into a window frame thus allowing light into a room while keeping the elements at bay. Glazed windows are evident in the first century AD. This is around the time the batch formulas for glass were being developed that form the transparent colors found so abundantly today. This is also when the earliest stained glass windows started appearing.

Below, in chronological order, are descriptions of dates, locations, and individuals which have a major impact in the further innovation of the history of glass.

Mesopotamia, 8,000 – 5,000 B.C.

The first Neolithic or New Stone Age farmers develop some of the earliest techniques of pottery making. This occurred in the villages of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Around 6,000 B.C. the pottery had developed into an art, forming its own distinctive style. Return to Index

Mesopotamia, 5,000 – 3,000 B.C.

The Sumerians were the earliest inhabitants of Mesopotamia. Their civilization was based on urban settlements which allowed their culture to develop and prosper. Their art reflected human and animal images carved from alabaster and clay based materials. Their pottery displayed a wide variance of decorative styles ranging from geometric patterns to stylized animal figures. Return to Index

Egypt, 5,000 – 3,000 B.C.

Pharaonic art was greatly influenced by Sumerian art. A victory palette of King Narmer of Egypt showed certain characteristics of the Sumerian style. This palette was cut in relief depicting the conquests of the king. A glazed quartz frit, termed faience, was developed around 3,000 B.C.. This material was widely used to make vessels, ornaments, beads, and tiles. Return to Index

Egypt, 3,000 – 1,000 B.C.

During the eighteenth dynasty, (1567 – 1320 B.C.), the first glassware had been developed. Hollow vessels were molded onto metal rods and decorated with trails of opaque glass. Mosaic tiles were being made by fusing colored rods together. Early forms of glass engraving were being practiced allowing sculptural pieces of art to be created, i.e. effigies, gods, and scarabs. The solid piece of glass would be carved much as a sculptor cuts a precious stone. Return to Index

Egypt, 500 B.C. – 1 A.D.

The Syrians invented the “blowing iron”. This tool increased the efficiency of the glass artisans while allowing larger and more innovative vessels to be created. Return to Index

Italy, 77 A.D.

Roman historian Pliny, states in Naturalis Historica, man first produced glass by accident about the year 5,000 B.C.. “Phoenician sailors, feasting on a beach near Belus in Asia Minor, could find no stones on which to place their cooking pots. Therefore they set them on blocks of soda carried by their ship as cargo. As the fires heat increased, the sand and soda turned to molten glass.” Return to Index

Roman Empire, 400 – 500 A.D.

The barbarian invasions destroyed the glass industry in all parts of the empire with the exception of the Byzantium. German provinces in the north continued on the tradition most notably in Cologne. Some of the finer pieces show trailed thread decoration. Return to Index

Europe, 400 – 750 A.D.

Merovingian glass, found in pagan tombs of this period, include ribbed ware, drinking horns, and “claw beakers” which had trunk like appendages curving down from the body of the vessel. Return to Index

England, 625 – 630 A.D.

The royal burial mound at Sutton Hoo contained gold, garnet and glass jewelry apparently from one workshop indicating a high standard of Anglo-Saxon craftsmanship. Return to Index

Italy, 626 A.D.

Queen Theodolinda wills the earliest surviving jeweled book cover to the Basilica of St. John at Monza. The cover was divided into fourths by a gold cross. Cloisonné’ glass and cameo are used. Return to Index

Islam, 800 – 900 A.D.

Centers at Baghdad and Cairo where luster-ware pottery was created by reducing silver and copper pigments onto an already fused glaze. Return to Index

Italy, 835 A.D.

Wolvinius, a German artist, created an altar frontal for St. Ambrogio, Milan, in Cloisonne’ enamel. Cloisonne’ work with glass and stones had flourished in northern Europe since 600 A.D.. Return to Index

Russia, 1,000 – 1,100

In the cities of Kiev, Ryazan, and Vladimir, glass mosaic cubes, bangles, and vessels were in production. The main colors which dominated the glass centers were pale and dark blue, green, and yellow. Kiev became an important center known for its wide range of colors used by the Cloisonne’ artists. The colors were white, Pinkish-yellow, turquoise, and dark blue. Return to Index

Venice, 1096

During the beginning of the Crusades, the Venetian merchants were able to contract with the Syrian glassmaking centers. Return to Index

Germany, 1100

Probable date of the five windows in Augsburg Cathedral, thought to be the oldest surviving stained glass windows. Return to Index

Italy, 1100

A Venetian school of mosaic art was established and became influential throughout Italy. Return to Index

France, 1144

Beginning of a period of stained glass production at the abbey of St. Denis under Abbot Suger. St. Denis became the center of a French school of window design which was influential in the Netherlands and England. The style used small pieces of glass in strong colors. Return to Index

France, 1194

Of the 106 windows in Chartes Cathedral, roughly half were donated by trade guilds and portray their donor’s work. Return to Index

Italy, 1200 – 1300

The Altarists glass-makers of Montferrat began to disperse throughout Europe. Return to Index

Venice, 1224

A glass-blowers guild is known to have existed. Return to Index

England, 1225 – 1250

Laurence Vitrearius from Normandy was established in the Surry-Sussex weald as a maker of window glass. Return to Index

Yemen, 1228 – 1442

The Rasulid emirs were patrons of the arts. The period is noted for blown glass which was then enameled and gilded. Return to Index

Russia, 1237 – 1480

The Mongol occupation greatly disrupted the growth of Russian art. The glass-making centers were destroyed. Return to Index

Russia, 1260

Roger Bacon first outlined the laws of reflection and refraction of light. He also described a prototype for the magnifying glass. Return to Index

Russia, 1280

Glass mirror invented. Return to Index

Venice, 1292

Glass factories making soda-glass were established on Murano Island. Return to Index

Germany, 1300

The abbey church of Altenberg, near Cologne, was given grisaille windows instead of the customary bright colors. Return to Index

France, 1300 – 1325

Silver Stain was first used in stained glass windows. Its discovery was an accident. A silver button from a monk’s tunic apparently fell off and made it’s way into the kiln he was loading. Upon opening the kiln, after the firing, the button was found resting on a piece of glass. To the surprise of the monk, a noticeable round halo, amber in color, was found to be surrounding the button. Return to Index

Italy, 1400 – 1500

It was discovered in Venice that manganese oxide would clarify glass and remove the green and brown tints of iron in silica. The resulting clear glass resembled rock crystal and was called crystal. Return to Index

Syria, 1402

Damascus was invaded by Timur, who destroyed the glass industry. As a result, Syrian competition was eliminated, leaving Venice with a stronger competitive edge. Return to Index

Italy, 1450

Venetian glass artists began to make pedestal foot goblets. Venetian glass was suitable for molding yet to fragile to engrave. Thus the surface decoration was done with enamels. Latticino and crackle glass was developed during this time. Return to Index

Italy, 1463

Discovery of Venetian cristallo glass-making technique, attributed to the Berovieri family of Murano. Return to Index

Ukraine, 1500 – 1600

Revival of the medieval glass industry, making mosaic cubes, rings and vessels. Return to Index

Flanders, 1511

Stained glass artist Dirk Vellert (1511 – 1544) was made a master of the guild of St. Luke in Antwerp. His works can be found in Germany, England, and Spain. Return to Index

Netherlands, 1550

By this date émigré Altarists and Venetian glass- makers had established studios in Antwerp and Liege. Return to Index

Venice, 1500 – 1700

Glass-makers made lace glass or latticine, containing lacy patterns in opaque white. Return to Index

England, 1616

W. Snell formulated the Law Of Refraction Of Light. Return to Index

Germany, 1622

George Schwanhardt (1601 – 1667) began work as a glass engraver in Nuremberg. He further developed the technique of an earlier artist, Casper Lehmann (1570 – 1622) of engraving with the wheel and diamond. He was the first person to polish the surface. Return to Index

Germany, 1633

Lorraine, the main center for making colored glass, was devastated by war and the glass-makers dispersed. Colored glass being no longer available, artists began to make windows by painting pictures on clear glass with vitreous enamel. Return to Index

Russia, 1668

The Izmaylovo glass factory, the first recorded in Russia, was founded, employing Venetian glass-blowers. Return to Index

England, 1671

Issaic Newton constructed the reflecting telescope. Return to Index

France, 1688

Abraham Thevart cast the first glass plate. Return to Index

England, 1600 – 1700

Powdered flint became the English silica for glass-making. Flint produced a glass that cracked on the inside: to counter this, lead was added thus producing a crystal which diffused light with an unparalleled brilliance. George Ravenscroft, (1618 –1681), had discovered lead crystal. Lead Crystal was patented in 1674. Return to Index

Germany, 1700 – 1800

Johann Kunckel (1630 – 1703) developed goldrubinglas (gold ruby glass) characterized by deep rich colors, including green. Return to Index

Russia, 1700 – 1800

Sparrow Hills glass factory was established by English masters and glass-blowers, who trained Russian craftsmen. Return to Index

Spain, 1728

Founding of the royal glass factory at La Granja. From 1775 it produced crystal glass with gilded and engraved patterns. Return to Index

Bohemia, 1730

Invention of Zeischengoldglass, a style of glass in which the sides of the vessel were decorated in gold leaf. It was then encased in an outer layer of glass, which was then converted on to the original. Return to Index

England, 1730

First known pieces of English cut-glass: shallow cutting was used until c. 1800 when the typical deep-cut diamond pattern was developed. Return to Index

North America, 1739

Caspar Wistar (1696 – 1752), a German, established the first successful American glass factory, in New Jersey. He made free-blown ware decorated with applied form especially the “lily-pad” motif known as the South Jersey style. The style lasted c. 1850. American glass-making began as an industry, not a craft, and designers did not make their own glasses. Return to Index

Sweden, 1742

Foundation of the Kosta glassworks, which became famous for cut and engraved crystal. Sculptured glass was also developed at a later time. Return to Index

Russia, 1750

The glass-maker Bakhnetev and chemist Lomonosov developed white opaline glass and smalt, heavy colored glass. They also revived the glass-cube mosaic. Return to Index

America, 1763 – 1774

Henry Stiegel (1729 – 1785) a German, flourished as a glass-maker, with factories in Pennsylvania. He was the first American glass-maker to insist on controlling the quality of his glass. Return to Index

America, 1784 – 1794

John Fredrick Amelung, a German, prospered as a glass-maker in Maryland. He closely imitated European forms and produced better quality glass than his predecessors. Return to Index

America, 1808

Bakewell & Co. of Pittsburgh, began production of cut and engraved glass. Return to Index

America, 1818

New England Glass Company was founded. Free-blown glass and engraved glass was the firms specialty. In 1892 the company was purchased by the Libby Glass Company. Return to Index

America, 1820 – 1830

Development of press-molded glass, which was pressed by plunger into a pattern mold. Return to Index

America, 1825

Founding of the Boston and Sandwich Glass Company. They specialized in mold-blown and pressed glass of lacy design, and in cut glass with colored overlay. Return to Index

France, 1840

Venetian paperweights began to be imported. They became the model for glass factories of Baccarat, Clichy, and St. Louis. Return to Index

England, 1851

Exhibition of cased glass by Bohemian glass-makers at the Great exhibition, London, greatly influenced glass manufacturing in England. Return to Index

England, 1861

William Morris and Associates set up Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. to make hand made furniture, metalware, ceramics, textiles, and glass. Return to Index

America, 1864

William Leighton developed a soda lime glass as clear as lead glass but at a far reasonable price. Return to Index

America, 1876

During the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition, the glass displayed was more deeply cut and more elaborately patterned. This marked the beginning of the American “brilliant” period in American glass manufacturing. Return to Index

America, 1881

Louis Comfort Tiffany (1848 – 1933) formed Louis C. Tiffany & Associated Artists, painters, architects, glass-makers, and general decorative artists. Return to Index

America, 1888

Kokomo Opalescent Glass Company was established. Kokomo Glass Co. is still in production in Kokomo, Indiana. Return to Index

France, 1890

Emile Galle’, designer and glass-maker, specialized in decoration based entirely on earthly forms. He worked with opaque and semi-transparent glasses. Return to Index

America, 1893

Tiffany Studios began making fravile glass. Hot glass, when sprayed with metal salts in solution, will give the glass a colored, iridescent, and metallic sheen. Return to Index

America, 1903

Fredrick Carter helped to found Steuben Glass Works. He helped pioneer the decorative use of glass in architecture. The company’s leaded glass is perhaps the finest in the world. Return to Index

America, 1907 – 1908

Alton Manufacturing Company temporarily revived the Boston Sandwich Company which had closed in 1888. The glass was made in the style of Tiffany Studios. Return to Index

Sweden, 1930

The Orrefors Glass Company developed the Ariel glass technique, i.e. obtaining a design by trapping air and pigments in an outer layer of glass then fusing this to an inner layer. There are two other techniques exclusive to Orrefors. Graal glass is three alternating layers of clear and patterning. Ravenna glass is successive layers of colored decoration. Return to Index

America, 1930

Acrylic plastics are invented. Return to Index